Two-word terms

This image contains two Australopithecus afarensis footprints. Australopithecus afarensis is a hominin. Credit: Tim Evanson.

"The compound two-word term is employed to give more precision than either word alone would have, not being exact synonyms. And each word indicates the sense in which the other is used."[1] Bold added.

The image at right is part of human history. And, human history is a two-word term.

Terminology

These two hemispheric Lambert azimuthal equal area projections show the total magnetic field strength at the surface of the Moon, derived from the Lunar Prospector electron reflectometer (ER) experiment. Credit: Mark A. Wieczorek.

“[T]he main goal of terminology is not to represent concepts in order to manipulate them (as in artificial intelligence) but to define a common vocabulary we hope is consensual.”[2] Bold added.

It should be possible to take an apparent term, especially a likely cultural, technical or scientific term, and locate its domain, etymology, lexicography, and pragmatics.

Words

Def.

  1. "[a] distinct unit of language (sounds in speech or written letters) with a particular meaning, composed of one or more morphemes, and also of one or more phonemes that determine its sound pattern",[3]
  2. "[a]ny sequence of letters or characters considered as a discrete entity",[3] or
  3. "[d]ifferent symbols, written or spoken, arranged together in a unique sequence that approximates a thought in a person's mind"[3]

is called a word.

"In English and other space-delimited languages, it is customary to treat "word" as referring to any sequence of characters delimited by spaces. However, this is not applicable to languages such as Chinese and Japanese, which are normally written without spaces, or to languages such as Vietnamese, which are written with a space between each syllable."[3]

Def. "words which are not found in a dictionary",[4] are called out-of-vocabulary words.

Terms

Def. a "word or phrase, especially one from a specialised area of knowledge",[5] or "a well-defined word or phrase"[5] is called a term.

Term filtering

"Two-word terms [are] determined not to be of interest in the context of the whole document collection either because they do not occur frequently enough or because they occur in a constant distribution among different documents [deviation-based approach]."[6]

Constant frequency

In Google scholar searches, "credit card" may appear more often associated with articles than "net income", for example, because of the common occurrence of the sentence "The only accepted payment is by credit card." with regard to purchasing a copy of the article or book.

Significant variations

The statistical significance approach "is to test whether the variation of the relative frequency of a given term t in the document collection is statistically significant."[6]

Term relevance

"The notion of term relevance with respect to a document collection is [determined by assigning] each term its score based on maximal tf-idf (term frequency - inverse document frequency, maximal with respect to all the documents in the collection) [information retrieval approach]."[6] For example, "net income" received a score of 17.17, but "big bank" received only 5.39 [which is above the irrelevance cutoff].[6] "Credit card" did not make the cutoff.[6]

Depending on the meaning of "big bank", it may be a relative synonym for "dominant group". "Big" may suggest "important" (one of its synonyms) and a "bank" might be considered an "assemblage" (also a synonym), although the two words taken individually have more popular meanings.

Biological adults

"Although few or no established dictionaries provide a definition for the two word term biological adult, the first definition of adult in multiple dictionaries includes "the stage of the life cycle of an animal after reproductive capacity has been attained".[7][8] Thus, the base definition of the word adult is the period beginning at puberty. Although this is the primary definition of the base word adult, the two word term biological adult stresses or clarifies that the original definition, based on the beginning of puberty, is being used (that is, the organism has matured to the biologically important point of being able to reproduce)."[9]

Legal adults

"[A] legal adult is a legal concept for a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as independent, self-sufficient, and responsible (contrast with "minor")."[9]

Glossary

"[T]wo-word glossary items are the most common technical terms".[4]

"Human use is supported by published glossaries, on-line glossary reference tools, and authoring environments that use glossaries to enable or enforce terminological consistency."[4]

"[M]ost technical jargon is not likely to be included in a general-purpose dictionary."[4]

Collocations

"In corpus linguistics, collocation defines a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. In phraseology, collocation is a sub-type of phraseme. An example of a phraseological collocation (from Michael Halliday[10]) is the expression strong tea. While the same meaning could be conveyed by the roughly equivalent powerful tea, this expression is considered incorrect by English speakers. Conversely, the corresponding expression for computer, powerful computers is preferred over strong computers. Phraseological collocations should not be confused with idioms although both are similar in that there is a degree of meaning present in the collocation or idiom that is not entirely compositional. With idioms, the meaning is completely non-compositional whereas collocations are mostly compositional."[11]

Substitution restrictions

"We can say highly sophisticated, and we can say extremely happy. Both adverbs have the same lexical functions, that is adding the degree, or magnifying the impact of the adjectives (sophisticated, happy), However, they are not interchangeable. Still, other adverbs, such as very can replace both highly and extremely."[12].

Modified syntaxes

"Unlike the majority of idioms, collocations are subject to syntactic modification. For example, we can say effective writing and write effectively."[12].

Compound nouns

"Some words are often found together because they make up a compound noun, for example 'riding boots' or 'motor cyclist'."[12].

Syntactic relations

"Collocations can be in a syntactic relation"[11].

Lexical relations

The "lexical relation" can be antonymy, or "in no linguistically defined relation."[11].

Key words

A collocation may be "a Key Word in Context ([Key Word in Context] KWIC)"[11].

"A key-word is a single word with high frequency over the set of Web pages, and a key-term is a two-word term with very high frequency."[13]

Collocation processing

"The processing of collocations involves a number of parameters, the most important of which is the measure of association, which evaluates whether the co-occurrence is purely by chance or statistically significant. Due to the non-random nature of language, most collocations are classed as significant, and the association scores are simply used to rank the results. Commonly used measures of association include mutual information, [Student's t-test] t scores, and log-likelihood.[14]"[11]

Collocation definitions

"Rather than select a single definition, Gledhill[15] proposes that collocation involves at least three different perspectives: (i) cooccurrence, a statistical view, which sees collocation as the recurrent appearance in a text of a node and its collocates,[16][17][18] (ii) construction, which sees collocation either as a correlation between a lexeme and a lexical-grammatical pattern,[19] or as a relation between a base and its collocative partners[20] and (iii) expression, a pragmatic view of collocation as a conventional unit of expression, regardless of form.[21][22] It should be pointed out here that these different perspectives contrast with the usual way of presenting collocation in phraseological studies. Traditionally speaking, collocation is explained in terms of all three perspectives at once, in a continuum:

‘Free Combination’ ↔ ‘Bound Collocation’ ↔ ‘Frozen Idiom’"[11].

Research

Hypothesis:

  1. Dominant group connects and group with dominance.

Control groups

This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the control group.

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the treatment group(s).[23] In comparative experiments, members of the complementary group, the control group, receive either no treatment or a standard treatment.[24]"[25]

Proof of concept

Def. a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"[26] is called a proof of concept.

Def. evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called proof of concept.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of

  1. background,
  2. procedures,
  3. findings, and
  4. interpretation.[27]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Robert I. Coulter (1954). "Typewritten Library Manuscripts are not Printed Publications". Journal of the Patent Office Society 36: 258. http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/jpatos36&section=44. Retrieved 2012-06-21.
  2. ↑ Christophe Roche, Marie Calberg-Challot, Luc Damas, Philippe Rouard (October 2009). Herold, A., Hicks, A., Rigau, G., & Laparra, E.. ed. Ontoterminology: A new paradigm for terminology, In: International Conference on Knowledge Engineering and Ontology Development. Madeira, Portugal. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00622132/. Retrieved 2012-03-21.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "word, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. June 15, 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-16.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Youngja Park, Roy J Byrd and Branimir Boguraev (2002). Automatic Glossary Extraction: Beyond Terminology Identification, In: "Proceedings of the Nineteenth International Conference on Computational Linguistics". Morristown, New Jersey. pp. 772-8. http://acl.ldc.upenn.edu/coling2002/proceedings/data/area-27/co-372.pdf. Retrieved 2012-03-05.
  5. 1 2 "term, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. June 10, 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-16.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Ronen Feldman, Moshe Fresko, Yakkov Kinar, Yehuda Lindell, Orly Liphstat, Martin Rajman, Yonatan Schler and Oren Zamir (1998). "Text mining at the term level". Principles of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Lecture Notes in Computer Science 1510 (1998): 65-73. doi:10.1007/BFb0094806. http://www.fmt.vein.hu/softcomp/dw/egyeni/textmining/irodalom/Feldmanetal98a.pdf. Retrieved 2012-03-05.
  7. ↑ International Dictionary of Medicine and Biology (1986)
  8. ↑ Churchill’s Medical Dictionary (1989)
  9. 1 2 "Adult, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. June 20, 2012. Retrieved 2012-06-21.
  10. ↑ Halliday, M.A.K., 'Lexis as a Linguistic Level', Journal of Linguistics 2(1) 1966: 57-67
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Collocation, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. May 13, 2012. Retrieved 2012-05-14.
  12. 1 2 3 "Collocation, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. May 13, 2012. Retrieved 2012-05-14.
  13. ↑ Yongzheng Zhang, Nur Zincir-Heywood, Evangelos Milios (2004). "World Wide Web site summarization". Web Intelligence and Agent Systems 2 (1): 39-53. http://iospress.metapress.com/content/efb6dxqpwfpe21k3/. Retrieved 2012-06-21.
  14. ↑ Dunning, T. (1993): "Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence". Computational Linguistics 19, 1 (Mar. 1993), 61-74.
  15. ↑ Gledhill C. (2000): Collocations in Science Writing, Narr, Tübingen
  16. ↑ Firth J.R. (1957): Papers in Linguistics 1934–1951. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  17. ↑ Sinclair J. (1996): “The Search for Units of Meaning”, in Textus, IX, 75–106.
  18. ↑ Smadja F. A & McKeown, K. R. (1990): “Automatically extracting and representing collocations for language generation”, Proceedings of ACL’90, 252–259, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
  19. ↑ Hunston S. & Francis G. (2000): Pattern Grammar — A Corpus-Driven Approach to the Lexical Grammar of English, Amsterdam, John Benjamins
  20. ↑ Hausmann F. J. (1989): Le dictionnaire de collocations. In Hausmann F.J., Reichmann O., Wiegand H.E., Zgusta L.(eds), Wörterbücher : ein internationales Handbuch zur Lexicographie. Dictionaries. Dictionnaires. Berlin/New-York : De Gruyter. 1010-1019.
  21. ↑ Moon R. (1998): Fixed Expressions and Idioms, a Corpus-Based Approach. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  22. ↑ Frath P. & Gledhill C. (2005): “Free-Range Clusters or Frozen Chunks? Reference as a Defining Criterion for Linguistic Units,” in Recherches anglaises et Nord-américaines, vol. 38 :25–43
  23. ↑ Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne (2008). Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-72756-9. http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover.
  24. ↑ R. A. Bailey (2008). Design of comparative experiments. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68357-9. http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579.
  25. ↑ "Treatment and control groups, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. May 18, 2012. Retrieved 2012-05-31.
  26. ↑ "proof of concept, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. November 10, 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  27. ↑ Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis (August 13, 2005). "Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study". Lancet 366 (9485): 549-55. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/. Retrieved 2012-05-09.

Further reading

External links

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