Spaceflights

The image shows a North American X-15 on a test flight for the US Air Force. Credit: USAF.

Manned spaceflight on an individual basis has only been achieved with experimental aircraft such as the X-15.

Theoretical spaceflights

A jet with one or two pilots aboard is shown in flight. Credit: Robert Lawton.

Def. an "act of flight"[1] is called flying.

Def.

  1. the "act of flying",[2]
  2. an "instance of flying",[2] or
  3. a "journey made by an aircraft, eg a balloon, plane or space shuttle, particularly one between two airports, which needs to be reserved in advance"[2] is called a flight.

Def. a flight "into, from or through space"[3] is called a space flight or spaceflight.

Def. any "region of space beyond limits determined with reference to boundaries of a celestial system or body, especially the region of space immediately beyond Earth's atmosphere"[4] is called outer space.

""Flyings" could vary considerably in complexity and lavishness and could involve an actor or property being either lifted from the stage into the flies above or vice versa. As Colin Visser has observed, flyings and sinkings are both "associated with supernatural manifestations of various kinds""[5]

Bone mineral losses

In these images are a Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) scans of a human hip bone, left, and a human spine, right. Credit: Thomas Lang, University of California in San Francisco, NASA.

Def. the "amount of mineral per square centimeter of"[6] bone is called bone density (in clinical practice).

"Actual bone density would be expressed in grams per milliliter."[6]

Areal bone mineral density "BMD (aBMD) measurements by [dual energy X-ray absorptiometry] DXA showed that cosmonauts making flights of 4- to 12-month duration on the Soviet/Russian MIR spacecraft lost bone at an average rate of 1%/month from the spine and 1.5%/month from the hip."[7]

From "a study of crewmembers (13 males and 1 female; age range, 40–55 years) on long-duration missions (4–6 months) on the International Space Station (ISS). We used DXA to obtain aBMD of the hip and spine and volumetric QCT (vQCT) to assess integral, cortical, and trabecular volumetric BMD (vBMD) in the hip and spine. In the heel, DXA was used to measure aBMD, and quantitative ultrasound (QUS) was used to measure speed of sound (SOS) and broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA). [...] aBMD was lost at rates of 0.9%/month at the spine (p < 0.001) and 1.4 –1.5%/month at the hip (p < 0.001). Spinal integral vBMD was lost at a rate of 0.9%/month (p < 0.001), and trabecular vBMD was lost at 0.7%/month (p < 0.05). In contrast to earlier reports, these changes were generalized across the vertebrae and not focused in the posterior elements. In the hip, integral, cortical, and trabecular vBMD was lost at rates of 1.2–1.5%/month (p < 0.0001), 0.4–0.5%/month (p < 0.01), and 2.2–2.7%/month (p < 0.001), respectively. The cortical bone loss in the hip occurred primarily by cortical thinning. Calcaneal aBMD measurements by DXA showed smaller mean losses (0.4%/month) than hip or spine measurements, with SOS and BUA showing no change."[7]

"Long-term spaceflights induce bone loss as a result of profound modifications of bone remodeling"[8]

"We measured intact parathyroid hormone (PTH) and serum calcium; for bone formation, serum concentrations of bone alkaline phosphatase (BAP), intact osteocalcin (iBGP), and type 1 procollagen propeptide (PICP); for resorption, urinary concentrations (normalized by creatinine) of procollagen C-telopeptide (CTX), free and bound deoxypyridinoline (F and B D-Pyr), and Pyr in a 36-year-old cosmonaut (RTO), before (days −180, −60, and −15), during (from days 10 to 178, n = 12), and after (days +7, +15, +25, and +90) a 180-day spaceflight, in another cosmonaut (ASW) before and after the flight. Flight PTH tended to decrease by 48% and postflight PTH increased by 98%. During the flight, BAP, iBGP, and PICP decreased by 27%, 38%, and 28% respectively in CM1, and increased by 54%, 35%, and 78% after the flight. F D-Pyr and CTX increased by 54% and 78% during the flight and decreased by 29% and 40% after the flight, respectively. We showed for the first time in humans that microgravity induced an uncoupling of bone remodeling between formation and resorption that could account for bone loss."[8]

Carotid baroreceptor-cardiac reflexes

"Spaceflight is associated with decreased orthostatic tolerance after landing. Short-duration spaceflight (4–5 days) impairs one neural mechanism: the carotid baroreceptor-cardiac reflex. To understand the effects of longer-duration spaceflight on baroreflex function, we measured R-R interval power spectra, antecubital vein plasma catecholamine levels, carotid baroreceptor-cardiac reflex responses, responses to Valsalva maneuvers, and orthostatic tolerance in 16 astronauts before and after shuttle missions lasting 8–14 days. We found the following changes between preflight and landing day: 1) orthostatic tolerance decreased; 2) R-R interval spectral power in the 0.05 to 0.15-Hz band increased; 3) plasma norepinephrine and epinephrine levels increased; 4) the slope, range, and operational point of the carotid baroreceptor cardiac reflex response decreased; and 5) blood pressure and heart rate responses to Valsalva maneuvers were altered. Autonomic changes persisted for several days after landing."[9]

Immune system changes

"The results of immunological analyses before, during and after spaceflight, have established the fact that spaceflight can result in a blunting of the immune mechanisms of human crew members and animal test species. There is some evidence that the immune function changes in short-term flights resemble those occurring after acute stress, while the changes during long-term flights resemble those caused by chronic stress. In addition, this blunting of the immune function occurs concomitant with a relative increase in potentially infectious microorganisms in the space cabin environment. This combination of events results in an increased probability of inflight infectious events. The realization of this probability has been shown to be partially negated by the judicious use of a preflight health stabilization program and other operational countermeasures."[10]

Muscle mass losses

"Muscle strength and limb girth measurements during Skylab and Apollo missions suggested that loss of muscle mass may occur as a result of spaceflight. Extended duration spaceflight is important for the economical and practical use of space. The loss of muscle mass during spaceflight is a medical concern for long duration flights to the planets or extended stays aboard space stations. Understanding the extent and temporal relationships of muscle loss is important for the development of effective spaceflight countermeasures."[11]

"Statistical analyses demonstrated that [after 8 d shuttle flight] the soleus-gastrocnemius (-6.3%), anterior calf (-3.9%), hamstrings (-8.3%), quadriceps (-6.0%) and intrinsic back (-10.3%) muscles were decreased, p < 0.05, compared to baseline, 24 h after landing. At 2 weeks post recovery, the hamstrings and intrinsic lower back muscles were still below baseline, p < 0.05."[11]

Orthostatic intolerances

Def. symptoms "of cerebral hypoperfusion or autonomic overaction which develop while the subject is standing, but are relieved on recumbency"[6] are called orthostatic intolerance.

The types of orthostatic intolerance "include NEUROCARDIOGENIC SYNCOPE; POSTURAL ORTHOSTATIC TACHYCARDIA SYNDROME; and neurogenic ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION."[6]

Def. a "transient loss of consciousness and postural tone caused by diminished blood flow to the brain"[6] is called a syncope.

Def. loss "of consciousness due to a reduction in blood pressure that is associated with an increase in vagal tone and peripheral vasodilation"[6] is called vasovagal syncope or neurocardiogenic syncope.

Def. a "syndrome of ORTHOSTATIC INTOLERANCE combined with excessive upright TACHYCARDIA, and usually without associated ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION"[6] is called Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome.

"All variants have in common an excessively reduced venous return to the heart (central HYPOVOLEMIA) while upright."[6]

Def. "a 20-mm Hg decrease in systolic pressure or a 10-mm Hg decrease in diastolic pressure 3 minutes after the person has risen from supine to standing"[6] is called orthostatic hypotension.

"Symptoms generally include DIZZINESS, blurred vision, and SYNCOPE."[6]

"Orthostatic intolerance occurs commonly after spaceflight, and important aspects of the underlying mechanisms remain unclear."[12]

"After spaceflight, 9 of the 14 (64%) crew members could not complete a 10-min stand test that all completed preflight."[12]

The "postural vasoconstrictor response was significantly greater among the finishers (P < 0.01)."[12]

Research

Hypothesis:

  1. A method to place a 5,000 kg object in orbit by using the natural electric field of the Earth may be possible.

Control groups

This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the control group.

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the treatment group(s).[13] In comparative experiments, members of the complementary group, the control group, receive either no treatment or a standard treatment.[14]"[15]

Proof of concept

Def. a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"[16] is called a proof of concept.

Def. evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called proof of concept.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of

  1. background,
  2. procedures,
  3. findings, and
  4. interpretation.[17]

Proof of technology

"[T]he objective of a proof of technology is to determine the solution to some technical problem, such as how two systems might be integrated or that a certain throughput can be achieved with a given configuration."[18]

Def.

  1. "[a]n original object or form which is a basis for other objects, forms, or for its models and generalizations",[19]
  2. "[a]n early sample or model built to test a concept or process",[19] or
  3. "[a]n instance of a category or a concept that combines its most representative attributes"[19] is called a prototype.

Def. "[t]o test something using the conditions that it was designed to operate under, especially out in the real world instead of in a laboratory or workshop"[20] is called "field-test", or a field test.

A "proof-of-technology prototype ... typically implements one critical scenario to exercise or stress the highest-priority requirements."[21]

"[A] proof-of-technology test demonstrates the system can be used"[22].

"The strongest proof of technology performance is based on consistency among multiple lines of evidence, all pointing to similar levels of risk reduction."[23]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "flying, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 29 May 2014. Retrieved 2014-06-10.
  2. 1 2 3 "flight, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 June 2014. Retrieved 2014-06-10.
  3. ↑ "space flight, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 February 2014. Retrieved 2014-06-10.
  4. ↑ "outer space, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 June 2014. Retrieved 2014-06-10.
  5. ↑ John C. Greene, ‎Gladys L. H. Clark (January 1993). The Dublin Stage, 1720-1745. Lehigh University Press. pp. 473. ISBN 9780934223225. http://books.google.com/books?id=l11r99P7I9MC&pg=PP4&lpg=PP4&source=bl&ots=GGfl7IIl9l&sig=NCF1aoZzbwUrZOra8B7DQs5k9Xw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wl-XU-jVKerlsATk4IGQAg&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBQ. Retrieved 2014-06-10.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 MeSH2011 (04 October 1989). "National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings". Bethsda, Maryland USA: National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 2015-09-13.
  7. 1 2 Thomas Lang, Adrian LeBlanc, Harlan Evans, Ying Lu, Harry Genant, and Alice Yu (8 March 2004). "Cortical and Trabecular Bone Mineral Loss From the Spine and Hip in Long-Duration Spaceflight". Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 19 (6): 1006-12. doi:10.1359/JBMR.040307. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1359/JBMR.040307/pdf. Retrieved 2015-09-13.
  8. 1 2 Anne Caillot-Augusseau, Marie-Héléne Lafage-Prousta, Claude Soler, Josiane Pernod, Francis Dubois and Christian Alexandre (March 1998). "Bone formation and resorption biological markers in cosmonauts during and after a 180-day space flight (Euromir 95)". Clinical Chemistry 44 (3): 578-85. http://www.clinchem.org/content/44/3/578.short. Retrieved 2015-09-13.
  9. ↑ J. M. Fritsch-Yelle, J. B. Charles, M. M. Jones, L. A. Beightol, D. L. Eckberg (1 October 1994). "Spaceflight alters autonomic regulation of arterial pressure in humans". Journal of Applied Physiology 77 (4): 1776-83. http://jap.physiology.org/content/77/4/1776. Retrieved 2015-09-13.
  10. ↑ GR Taylor, I Konstantinova, G Sonnenfeld, R Jennings (1997). "Changes in the immune system during and after spaceflight.". Advances in Space Biology and Medicine 6: 1-34. PMID 9048132. http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/9048132. Retrieved 2015-09-13.
  11. 1 2 A LeBlanc, R Rowe, V Schneider, H Evans, and T Hedrick (1995). "Regional muscle loss after short duration spaceflight". Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 66 (12): 1151-4. PMID 8747608. http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/8747608. Retrieved 2015-09-13.
  12. 1 2 3 J. C. Buckey Jr, L. D. Lane, B. D. Levine, D. E. Watenpaugh, S. J. Wright, W. E. Moore, F. A. Gaffney, C. G. Blomqvist (1 July 1996). "Orthostatic intolerance after spaceflight". Journal of Applied Physiology 81 (1): 7-18. http://jap.physiology.org/content/81/1/7. Retrieved 2015-09-13.
  13. ↑ Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne (2008). Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-72756-9. http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover.
  14. ↑ R. A. Bailey (2008). Design of comparative experiments. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68357-9. http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579.
  15. ↑ "Treatment and control groups, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. May 18, 2012. Retrieved 2012-05-31.
  16. ↑ "proof of concept, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. November 10, 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  17. ↑ Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis (August 13, 2005). "Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study". Lancet 366 (9485): 549-55. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
  18. ↑ "Proof of concept, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. December 27, 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  19. 1 2 3 "prototype, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. December 8, 2013. Retrieved 2014-01-03.
  20. ↑ "field-test, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. August 5, 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  21. ↑ A. Liu; I. Gorton (March/April 2003). "Accelerating COTS middleware acquisition: the i-Mate process". Software, IEEE 20 (2): 72-9. doi:10.1109/MS.2003.1184171. http://cin.ufpe.br/~redis/intranet/bibliography/middleware/liu-cots03.pdf. Retrieved 2012-02-15.
  22. ↑ Rhea Wessel (January 25, 2008). "Cargo-Tracking System Combines RFID, Sensors, GSM and Satellite". RFID Journal: 1-2. http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/pdf/3870/1/1/rfidjournal-article3870.PDF. Retrieved 2012-02-15.
  23. ↑ P. Suresh, C. Rao, M.D. Annable and J.W. Jawitz (August 2000). E. Timothy Oppelt. ed. [http://www.afcee.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-071003-081.pdf#page=108 In Situ Flushing for Enhanced NAPL Site Remediation: Metrics for Performance Assessment, In: Abiotic In Situ Technologies for Groundwater Remediation Conference]. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. pp. 105. http://www.afcee.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-071003-081.pdf#page=108. Retrieved 2012-02-15.

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