Sex integration

This side of the Halifax, Nova Scotia 1882 token is strikingly American. Credit: Jerry "Woody" from Edmonton, Canada.

Sex integration is the intermixing of people or groups previously segregated on the basis of sex, for any social endeavor, activity, or a society that is made up totally of one sex. During childhood development sex differences, gender identity and labeling may lead to some sex segregation. Automatic sex integration may occur during and after development naturally as indicated by studies of such early peoples as the San people of southern Africa, where individuals of either sex are relatively equal[1] and the society egalitarian.[1]

"Continuing segregation in a variety of forms suggests that it would be fruitful to focus more attention on the variability existing within already “integrated” occupations."[2] The same may be written of social groups and societies.

Integration

Def.

  1. an "act or process of making whole or entire",[3]
  2. a "process of fitting into a community, notably applied to 'visible' (ethnic, immigrant...) minorities",[3]
  3. an "operation of finding the integral of a function",[3] or
  4. a "process by which the manifold is compacted into the relatively simple and permanent; supposed to alternate with differentiation as an agent in species' development",[3]

is called integration.

Sex

The two sexes (male and female) of the vermilion flycatcher are illustrated. Credit: Steven G. Johnson.

Def.

  1. a "main division into which an organism is placed according to its reproductive functions or organs",[4]
  2. a "sum of the biological characteristics by which male and female and other organisms are distinguished",[4] or
  3. sexual "intercourse; the act of sexual intercourse"[4]

is called sex.

Planetary science

West African bullfrog can change sex in a same-sex or single-sex environment. Credit: .

Def.

  1. belonging "to the sex which typically produces eggs, which in humans and most other mammals is typically the one which has XX chromosomes; belonging to the sex which has larger gametes (for species which have two sexes and for which this distinction can be made)"[5] or
  2. belonging "to the feminine (social) gender"[5]

is called a female.

Def.

  1. belonging "to the sex which typically has testes, which in humans and most other mammals is typically the one which has XY chromosomes",[6]
  2. belonging "to the masculine (social) gender",[6] or
  3. pertaining "to or associated with men, or male animals; masculine"

is called a male.

Some animals such as the West African bullfrog can change sex in a same-sex or single-sex environment.

Colors

There are many different types of sex determination depending on chromosomes. Credit: CFCF.

As the image at the right illustrates, there are many different types of sex determination depending on chromosomes.

Theoretical sex integration

Def. an occupation that is "between 45.0 and 55.0 percent female"[2] is called an integrated occupation, or sex integrated occupation.

Def. any group of adult hominins that is between 45.0 and 55.0 percent female is called a sexually integrated group.

Strong forces

"[F]or the vast majority of children, there is coincidence of biological sex, social gender label, and psychological gender identity, which is sufficient to produce same-sex segregation."[7][8]

"[Y]oung children who passed a gender labeling task were more likely than those who failed the task to choose same-sex peers (Fagot, Leinbach, & Hagan, 1986), suggesting that gender labeling promotes sex segregation."[8]

"[S]ame-sex segregation is a group phenomenon that arises from social processes that are related to gender identity and labeling common to all members of a sex, rather than to similarities in sex-typed activities."[8]

Sex segregation in children reflects social factors common to all members of the sex and is a group phenomenon resulting from gender identification and labeling, rather than to similarities in sex-typed activities.[9]

Weak forces

"On playmate preference, there was little overlap between control boys and girls (see Figure 2). The boys who scored within the range of girls were very young, and young children do not show strong same-sex playmate preferences (Hartup, 1983; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987)."[8]

Continuum

"A sex difference [in humans] is a distinction of biological and/or physiological characteristics associated with either males or females of a species."[10]

Quantitative differences are based on a gradient and involve different averages.

"For example, most males are taller and stronger than females,[11] but an individual female could be taller and/or stronger than an individual male. These differences and their extent vary across societies.[12]"[10]

"The most obvious differences between males and females include all the features related to reproductive role, notably the endocrine (hormonal) systems and their physiological and behavioural effects, including gonadal differentiation, internal and external genital and breast differentiation, and differentiation of muscle mass, height, and hair distribution."[10]

"Externally, the most sexually dimorphic portions of the human body are the chest, the lower half of the face, and the area between the waist and the knees.[13]"[10]

"Males weigh about 15% more than females, on average. For those older than 20 years of age, males in the US have an average weight of 86.1 kg (190 lbs), whereas females have an average weight of 74 kg (163 lbs).[14]"[10]

"On average, men are taller than women, by about 15 cm (6 inches).[11] American males who are 20 years old or older have an average height of 176.8 cm (5 ft 10 in). The average height of corresponding females is 162 cm (5 ft 4in).[14]"[10]

"Male and female pelvises are shaped differently. The female pelvis features a wider pelvic cavity, which is necessary when giving birth. The female pelvis has evolved to its maximum width for childbirth — an even wider pelvis would make women unable to walk.[15][16] In contrast, human male pelves did not evolve to give birth and are therefore slightly more optimized for walking.[17] The female pelvis is larger and broader than the male pelvis which is taller, narrower, and more compact. The female inlet is larger and oval in shape, while the male inlet is more heart-shaped.[18]"[10]

Sex differences usually describe differences which clearly represent a binary male/female split, such as human reproduction. Though some sex differences are controversial, they are not to be confused with sexist stereotypes.

Background

Def.

  1. a "division of [words, specifically] nouns and pronouns (and sometimes of other parts of speech), [into categories] such as masculine, feminine, neuter or common",[19]
  2. "a division into which an organism is placed according to its reproductive functions or organs",
  3. "the sum of the biological characteristics by which male and female and other organisms are distinguished",[19]
  4. identification "as male/masculine, female/feminine or something else, and association with a (social) role or set of behavioral and cultural traits, clothing, etc typically associated with one sex",[19] or
  5. a "sociocultural phenomenon of the division of people into various categories such as "male" and "female", with each having associated clothing, roles, stereotypes, etc"[19]

is called a gender.

Usage notes

"Some speakers, particularly in informal contexts, use sex and gender synonymously (interchangeably). In formal contexts, a distinction is usually made between sex (which is biological) and gender (which is social)."[19]

Neutrals

Def.

  1. a "state or quality of being neutral; the condition of being unengaged in contests between others; state of taking no part on either side; indifference",[20]
  2. a "condition of a nation or government which refrains from taking part, directly or indirectly, in a war between other powers",[20] or
  3. those "who are neutral; a combination of neutral powers or states"[20]

is called neutrality.

Def.

  1. applicable "or available to either gender (to both males and females)",[21]
  2. not "indicating or restricted by gender, and thus applicable or available to those of any gender and to those of no gender",[21] or
  3. in "languages where words are assigned to one gender or another, lacking such an assignment"[21]

is called gender-neutral.

"[E]qual sex representation in occupations does not necessarily produce gender equity at the job level, nor does equity in labor market rewards necessarily follow integration."[2]

"[O]ccupational desegregation does not necessarily yield gender equity."[2]

"Unisex refers to things that are suitable for either sex,[22][23] but can also be another term for gender-blindness."[24]

"Hair stylists and beauty salons that serve both men and women are often referred to as unisex. This is also typical of other services that traditionally separated the sexes, such as clothing shops."[24]

Egalitarianism

"According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the term has two distinct definitions in modern English.[25] It is defined either as a political doctrine that all people should be treated as equals and have the same political, economic, social, and civil rights[26] or as a social philosophy advocating the removal of economic inequalities among people or the decentralization of power. Some sources define egalitarianism as the point of view that equality reflects the natural state of humanity.[27][28][29]"[30]

Def. "[t]he political doctrine that holds that all people in a society should have equal rights from birth"[31] is called egalitarianism.

Egalitarian mortality

Egalitarian mortality (or mortality equality) is the study of mortality within groups, settlements, or societies, where the longevity of groups such as men and women appears to be approximately the same. "Say, for example, those who died before 80 always died at 50 and those who survived past 80 died at 85. Then if no one survives to 80, we have a completely egalitarian mortality distribution—everyone dies at 50."[32] Over the last century, mortality inequality has declined drastically in high-income countries and is now comparatively trivial; i.e., approaching mortality equality.[32] "[A] number of studies show more gender-egalitarian mortality among the poor."[33]

Sex segregation

Def. "[p]eople separating geographically, residentially, racially, religiously or by sex based on happenstance, voluntary choice or cultural attitudes [as enforced by law or the passing of laws]"[34] is called segregation.

"Sex segregation is the separation of people according to their sex. The term gender apartheid (or sexual apartheid) also has been applied to segregation of people by gender,[35] implying that it is sexual discrimination.[36] In some circumstances, gender segregation is a controversial policy, with critics contending that in most or all circumstances it is a violation of human rights, and supporters arguing that it is necessary to maintain decency, sacredness, modesty, female safety,[37] or the family unit.[38]"[39]

Adult sex segregation may have other origins. For example, the cosmological order underlying Polynesian notions of aristocracy, apparently originating from high volcanic islands whereby males have higher status by living higher on the volcano, is compromised by spatial ambiguities when living on an atoll consisting of a ring of islets, and the hierarchical social order becomes insupportable leading to a more egalitarian basis for social relations.[40]

Patriarchy

"[S]ex integration [may eliminate] gender hierarchy. [...] Male dominant norms can and do sexualize hierarchy [...]."[41]

“[G]ender is the central device for the simultaneous oppression both of women and of sexual minorities [including single men] under hetero-patriarchy. . . . [S]exual orientation actually and ultimately is sex-based.”[42]

But, "gender inequality of [the institutions and practices of sex, motherhood, and marriage] is not necessarily transformed through sex integration.61"[41]

"Privacy’s freedom does not make you equal, but freedom and equality can be harmonized if equality is not compromised."[41]

Male senior managers captured by the men's club concept, may well be the product of “corporate patriarchy” in which cultural processes and practices discriminate against and form a resistance to women.[43]

"When gender imbalance at the top (with men in the majority) is combined with greater sex integration further down the hierarchy, women experience greater “fit” within the organisation than when that gender imbalance permeates all management levels."[43] Further, an integrated top management team in terms of gender mix is possibly the single most important factor in creating a culture in which women feel comfortable and valued.[43]

Occupations

"Occupational segregation by sex is extensive in every region, at all economic development levels, under all political systems, and in diverse religious, social and cultural environments. It is one of the most important and enduring aspects of labour markets around the world."[44]

"It is a major source of labour market rigidity and economic inefficiency. Excluding a majority of workers from a majority of occupations, as at present, is wasteful of human resources, increases labour market inflexibility, and reduces an economy's ability to adjust to change."[44]

Occupational "segregation by sex is detrimental to women. It has an important negative effect on how men view women and on how women view themselves. This is turn negatively affects women's status and income and, consequently, many social variables such as mortality and morbidity, poverty and income inequality. The persistence of gender stereotypes also has negative effects on education and training and thus causes gender-based inequalities to be perpetuated into future generations."[44]

"[F]emale-male wage differentials are very small for single persons [...] married persons account for almost all of the observed female-male wage differential [...]."[44]

Financial institutions

"Final joint standards just released by six federal agencies for assessing the diversity practices of the financial institutions they regulate represent a complete failure to seriously address diversity in the banking industry."[45]

"The standards were issued by the Offices of Minority and Women Inclusion (OMWIs) in the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Securities and Exchange Commission, National Credit Union Administration and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau as required by section 342 [of the Dodd-Frank financial reform law]."[45]

“These standards lack vision.”[46]

“Congress gave the OMWIs a chance to help this critical sector of our economy truly reflect America, but what came out today sends the message that either the OMWIs or their bosses don’t care. Imagine you’re back in school and your teacher tells you that you can decide whether or not to take a final exam, write it yourself, grade it yourself, and any bad results won’t appear on your transcript. That’s what they’ve done. It’s just staggering.”[46]

“The standards issued today unfortunately fall short of what is necessary to achieve real progress.”[47]

“As I noted in my recent Corporate Diversity Survey, it’s no secret that the financial industry has a long way to go to improve the diversity of its leadership, workforce, and supplier base. The Offices of Minority and Women Inclusion were created to help address the lack of diversity within our financial sector, and we need much more than voluntary self-assessments to bring about much-needed transparency and meaningful change. The time has long passed for substantive and far-reaching standards to expand management, employment, and business opportunities for women and racial or ethnic minorities at all levels of the financial sector. The OMWIs must begin to live up to their potential and use their authority to push for greater diversity across the board.”[47]

“In the end, the Agencies have chosen to do what is convenient for the companies, rather than the right thing for the long-term benefit of our country.”[48]

The "industry [has a] long history of severe underrepresentation of minorities and women. For example, white men constitute only 31 percent of the U.S. workforce but occupy 64 percent of executive and senior level positions in the financial industry. Many believe that lack of attention to communities of color contributed to regulatory neglect of problems that led to the financial crash of 2008."[45]

Specifically, these are richer married white men (much less than 15 percent of the U.S. workforce), not necessarily single white men who are the majority of white men in the U.S. workforce.

"The standards allow financial institutions to do a self-assessment of diversity practices, but do not require any reporting to the public or to the OMWIs. Neither do they set any standards for reporting that would allow for meaningful comparisons between companies."[45]

"Effective models for promoting diversity among regulated businesses, without coercion or quotas, already exist."[46]

"In California, for example, both the Public Utilities Commission and Department of Insurance have programs under which regulated firms report the degree to which they contract with firms owned by women, minorities or disabled veterans. These programs, based on transparency and including clear reporting standards, have produced marked increases in contracting with diverse businesses."[45]

“Congress directed the OMWIs to assess the diversity policies and practices of the entities they regulate, and these standards don’t fulfill the congressional mandate. Letting the companies decide whether to report, what to report and how to report it is like having no reporting at all. We’re shocked and disappointed that they’ve disregarded so much constructive input.”[46]

Corporate America

Women and people of color remain grossly underrepresented at the highest ranks of corporate leadership. Credit: Bob Menendez.

"[W]omen and people of color remain grossly underrepresented at the highest ranks of corporate leadership and in corporate procurement practices. The numbers are dismal – and they haven’t improved much since I started this effort in 2010."[49]

"For example, white men continue to represent the overwhelming majority – 63% – of boards of directors. And, as you can see in the chart below, taken together with white women, white directors represent 82% of all board members. This disparity is even more pronounced on executive teams, as my survey found that 88% of all senior executives at participating Fortune 100 companies are white."[49]

"It is unacceptable that Corporate America reaps record profits by marketing goods and services to diverse communities, but women and minorities are not in leadership positions. It is unacceptable that our nation’s leading companies spend less than 5% of their total procurement dollars with minority-owned businesses, and only 3% with women-owned businesses, at a time when women- and minority-owned firms are flourishing in America and driving our nation’s economic growth."[49]

"On Monday [6/1/2015], Google said the percentage of women in technology jobs at the company had risen only slightly since last year, from 17 percent to 18 percent. The percentage of women in leadership roles also barely budged, from 21 percent to 22 percent."[50]

"Early indications show promise, but we know that with an organization our size, year on year growth and meaningful change is going to take time. There isn't a simple solution to solving the diversity challenges our company and industry faces, which is why we're committed over the long run to work that spans efforts."[51]

Just "14 percent of the software engineers it hired the previous year through university outreach efforts were women, but that number grew to 22 percent this past year — outpacing the percentage of computer science graduates who are women (18 percent)."[50]

Geography

This is the beret donning ceremony at Masada. Credit: Zizoxaxa.

"The Caracal Battalion is an infantry combat battalion of the Israel Defense Forces, composed of both male and female soldiers, of both Jewish and Arab descent.[52] It is named after the Caracal, a small cat whose sexes appear the same.[53] As of 2009, approximately 70% of the battalion was female.[52][54]"[55]

"Israel is the only country in the world with a mandatory military service requirement for women.[56][57][58]"[59]

With respect to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), "[t]he 2000 Equality amendment to the Military Service law states that "The right of women to serve in any role in the IDF is equal to the right of men."[58]

"[W]omen currently [comprise] 33% of all IDF soldiers and 51% of its officers,[60] fulfilling various roles within the Ground, Navy and Air Forces."[59]

History

"As Lieberson pointed out, this analysis misses the fact that "the dominant group ... uses its dominance to advance its own position" (p. 166)"[61].

"Dominant groups remain privileged because they write the rules, and the rules they write "enable them to continue to write the rules" (Lieberson 1985, p. 167; emphasis added)."[61]

"Neoclassical economic theory holds that the market is the mechanism through which wages are set, but markets are merely systems of rules (Marshall and Paulin n.d., p. 15) that dominant groups establish for their own purposes."[61]

"Dominant groups differentiate subordinate groups by physically isolating them--in ghettos, nurseries, segregated living quarters, and so on."[61]

"For example, when their physical integration with the dominant group means that a subordinate group's status differences might otherwise be invisible, special dress is usually required of them, as servants are required to wear uniforms."[61] "Because of the centrality of differentiation in domination systems, dominant groups have a considerable stake in maintaining it."[61]

Mathematics

Def. "[a] policy of formally complying with efforts to achieve a goal by making small, token gestures; especially to hire a minimal number of ethnically diverse or disadvantaged people"[62] is called tokenism.

Tokenism occurs when a group is composed of a clear majority, but there exists a definable subgroup within the larger group comprising less than 15 prcent.[63]

"In the arts, employment, and politics, tokenism is a policy or practice of limited inclusion or artistic and/or political representation of members of a traditionally marginalized group, usually creating a false appearance of inclusive practices rather than discrimination. Typical examples in real life and fiction include purposely including a member of a minority race (such as a black character in a mainly white cast, or a woman in a traditionally male universe) into a group. Classically, token characters have some reduced capacity compared to the other characters and may have bland or inoffensive personalities so as to not be accused of stereotyping negative traits. Alternatively, their differences may be overemphasized or made "exotic" and glamorous.[64] An Asian columnist arguing that immigration is too high, or a black pundit arguing that affirmative action is wrong could be considered [the use of] a token minority.[65]"[66]

Notation: let the symbol C&EN represent Chemical & Engineering News.

"C&EN's annual survey ... finds that 54 of the 403 directors serving at 42 top chemical companies are women. That is a rate of 1.3 women per firm and 13.4% of the total number of board positions."[67] While this is an increase over the previous year's result, "women aren't any more prominent among chemical company executive officers ... Women hold 41 of 417 executive officer slots at chemical firms ... an overall representation of 9.8%."[67] The previous year representation was 9.9%.[67]

Technology

"Hakim (1998:28) described policies of the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) in Britain, and international bodies such as the OECD, ILO, and European Commission, that see desegregation as the “principal mechanism for promoting equality between men and women.”"[2]

"Men and women in our society have very different experiences in nearly every aspect of their lives, so it is not surprising to find that their experiences with respect to technology are also very different. Boys and men are expected to learn about machines, tools and how things work. In addition, they absorb, ideally, a 'technological world view' that grew up along with industrial society. Such a world view emphasizes objectivity, rationality, control over nature and distance from human emotions. Conversely, girls and women are not expected to know much about technical matters. Instead, they are to be good at interpersonal relationships and to focus on people and on emotion. They are to be less rational, less capable of abstract, 'objective' thought."[68]

Research

Hypothesis:

  1. Sex segregation is an effective way to control large populations.

Control groups

This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the control group.

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the treatment group(s).[69] In comparative experiments, members of the complementary group, the control group, receive either no treatment or a standard treatment.[70]"[71]

Proof of concept

Def. a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"[72] is called a proof of concept.

Def. evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called proof of concept.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of

  1. background,
  2. procedures,
  3. findings, and
  4. interpretation.[73]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Marjorie Shostak (1981). Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman. New York: Harvard University Press. pp. 402. ISBN 0674624858. http://books.google.com/books?id=O7DtAAAAMAAJ&hl=en. Retrieved 2012-02-10.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Mary L. Gatta and Patricia A. Roos (September 2005). "Rethinking occupational integration". Sociological Forum 20 (3): 369-402. doi:10.1007/s11206-005-6594-5. http://www.springerlink.com/content/y08256w771550r25/. Retrieved 2012-02-10.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "integration, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 28 May 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-07.
  4. 1 2 3 "sex, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 July 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-07.
  5. 1 2 "female, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 June 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-07.
  6. 1 2 "male, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 July 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-07.
  7. ↑ E. E. Maccoby, C. N. Jacklin (1987). H. W. Reese. ed. Gender segregation in childhood. In: Advances in Child Development and Behavior. 20. New York: Academic Press. pp. 239–87.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Sheri A. Berenbaum, Elizabeth Snyder (January 1995). "Early hormonal influences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation". Developmental Psychology 31 (1): 31-42. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.31. http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/dev/31/1/31/. Retrieved 2012-12-20.
  9. ↑ E. E. Maccoby (1987). "Gender as a social category". Developmental Psychology 24: 755-65. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.24.6.755.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Sex differences in humans, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. December 17, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-20.
  11. 1 2 Gustafsson A & Lindenfors P (2004). "Human size evolution: no allometric relationship between male and female stature". Journal of Human Evolution 47 (4): 253–266. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.07.004. PMID 15454336.
  12. ↑ Birke, Lydia. The Gender and Science Reader ed. Muriel Lederman and Ingrid Bartsch. New York, Routledge, 2001. 306-322
  13. ↑ Gray 1918, Nowell 1926, Green 2000, et al.
  14. 1 2 Ogden et al (2004). Mean Body Weight, Height,and Body Mass Index, United States 1960–2002 Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, Number 347, October 27, 2004.
  15. ↑ R. Shaffer, M. Brodine, S. Trone, C. Macera (2005). "Predictors of stress fracture susceptibility in young female recruits". The American Journal of Sports 34 (1). http://ajs.sagepub.com/content/34/1/108.short.
  16. ↑ Austin, W. "Women in Sports, q angle, and acl injuries". Retrieved 1 July 2012.
  17. ↑ Merry (2005), p 48
  18. ↑ Thieme Atlas of Anatomy (2006), p 112
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 "gender, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. July 7, 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-07.
  20. 1 2 3 "neutrality, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 June 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-07.
  21. 1 2 3 "gender-neutral, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 9, 2013. Retrieved 2014-07-07.
  22. ↑ AskOxford: unisex
  23. ↑ unisex - Definitions from Dictionary.com
  24. 1 2 "Unisex, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 19, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-20.
  25. ↑ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/egalitarianism
  26. ↑ The American Heritage Dictionary (2003). "egalitarianism".
  27. ↑ John Gowdy (1998). Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A reader on Hunter-Gatherer Economics and the Environment. St Louis: Island Press. pp. 342. ISBN 155963555X.
  28. ↑ Dahlberg, Frances (1975). Woman the Gatherer. London: Yale university press. ISBN 0-30-02989-6. http://books.google.com/?id=eTPULzP1MZAC&pg=PA120&dq=Gathering+and+Hominid+Adaptation.
  29. ↑ Erdal, D. & Whiten, A. (1996) "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian Intelligence in Human Evolution" in Mellars, P. & Gibson, K. (eds) Modeling the Early Human Mind. Cambridge MacDonald Monograph Series
  30. ↑ "Egalitarianism, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. December 16, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-20.
  31. ↑ "egalitarianism, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. December 9, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-20.
  32. 1 2 Sam Peltzman (Fall 2009). "Mortality Inequality". The Journal of Economic Perspectives 23 (4): 175-90. doi:10.1257/089533009789994395. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/aea/jep/2009/00000023/00000004/art00008. Retrieved 2012-04-27.
  33. ↑ Lawrence Haddad, Christine Peña, Chizuru Nishida, Agnes Quisumbing, and Alison Slack (September 1996). Food Security and Nutrition Implications of Intrahousehold Bias: A Review of Literature. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. pp. 72. http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:SZkS_rfsmlcJ:scholar.google.com/+%22number+of+studies+show+more+gender-egalitarian+mortality+among+the+poor.%22&hl=en&as_sdt=0,3. Retrieved 2012-04-27.
  34. ↑ "segregation, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. November 29, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-20.
  35. ↑ Stephen Bates (2001-10-25). "Women clergy accuse Church of sexual apartheid". The Guardian. London: Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
  36. ↑ Otto D (1996). "Holding Up half the Sky, But For Whose Benefit: A Critical Analysis of the Fourth World Conference on Women". Austl Feminist LJ. 7. http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/afemlj6&section=6.
  37. ↑ Amnesty International includes segregated toilets among the measures to ensure the safety of girls/boys in schools. Six steps to stop violence against schoolgirls, Document ACT 77/008/2007, November 2007.
  38. ↑ CL Claussen (1991). "Incorporating Women's Reality into Legal Neutrality in the European Community: The Sex Segregation of Labor and Work-Family Nexus". Law Policy Intern'l Bus. 22. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5000143625.
  39. ↑ "Sex segregation, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. December 6, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-20.
  40. ↑ R Feinberg (July 1988). "Socio-spatial symbolism and the logic of rank on two Polynesian outliers". Ethnology 27 (3): 291-310. doi:10.2307/3773522.
  41. 1 2 3 Catharine A MacKinnon (2004). "The Road Not Taken: Sex Equality in Lawrence v. Texas". Ohio St. L.J. 65: 1081-94. http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/students/groups/oslj/files/2012/03/65.5.mackinnon.pdf.
  42. ↑ Francisco Valdes (1995). "Queers, Sissies, Dykes, and Tomboys: Deconstructing the Conflation of “Sex,” “Gender,” and “Sexual Orientation” in Euro-American Law and Society". California Law Review 83: 3, 324, 336. http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/students/groups/oslj/files/2012/03/65.5.mackinnon.pdf. Retrieved 2015-06-10.
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