Sediments/Sedimentology

< Sediments
This is an unsorted deposit with an extreme size range. Credit: Daniel Chapman.

Sedimentology is the science and study of sediments.

With appropriate conditions, sediment is transformed into rock. These are the sedimentary rocks.

Theoretical sedimentology

Def. a "study of natural sediments and of the processes by which they are formed"[1] is called sedimentology.

Sediments

Def. a "collection of small particles, particularly dirt, that precipitates from a river or other body of water"[2] is called a sediment.

Intraclasts

Def. a "sediment formed by the redeposition of material erodes from an original deposit"[3] is called an intraclast.

Lithification

Def. the "compaction and cementation of sediment into rock"[4] is called lithification.

Def. a "subdivision of any stratigraphic unit that has characteristic lithologic features"[5] is called a lithofacies.

Def. the "formation of sedimentary rock"[6] is called lithogenesis.

Def. "an element that forms silicates or oxides and is concentrated in the minerals of the Earth's crust"[7] is called a lithophile.

Bedrocks

Def. a "solid rock that exists at some depth below the ground surface"[8] is called a bedrock.

"Bedrock is rock "in place", as opposed to material that has been transported from another location by weathering and erosion."[8]

Usage notes

"In mountainous regions, bedrock can be seen at the surface. However, these occurrences are more properly called outcrops."[8]

Regoliths

Def. a "layer of loose rock, dust, sand, and soil, resting on the bedrock, that constitutes the surface layer"[9] is called a regolith.

Saprolites

Def. "a chemically weathered rock "[10] is called a saprolite.

Laterites

Def. a "red hard or gravel-like soil or subsoil [...] that has been leached of soluble minerals leaving insoluble iron and aluminium oxides and hydroxides"[11] is called a laterite.

Drifts

This shows morainic drift on the surface north of Brúarjökull. Credit: L.R. Bjarnadóttir.

Def. a "mass of matter which has been driven or forced onward together in a body, or thrown together in a heap"[12] is called drift.

The image on the right shows morainic drift on the surface north of the surge glacier Brúarjökull in Iceland.

Tills

This is glacial till exposed in a road cut with some small tufts of plants growing on it. Credit: Daniel Mayer.

Def. "glacial drift consisting of a mixture of clay, sand, pebbles and boulders"[13] is called till, or glacial till.

The image on the right shows glacial till exposed in a road cut with some plants growing on top.

Outwashes

Def. a "sediment (mostly sand and gravel) deposited by water flowing from a melting glacier"[14] is called an outwash.

Erratics

Def. a "rock moved from one location to another"[15] is called an erratic.

Landslides

This shows the La Conchita 1995 Landslide. Credit: USGS.

Def. "a movement of surface material down a slope"[16] is called a landslide.

Lahars

An explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens on March 19, 1982, sent pumice and ash 9 miles (14 kilometers) into the air, and resulted in a lahar (the dark deposit on the snow) flowing from the crater into the North Fork Toutle River valley. Credit: Tom Casadevall.

Def. a "volcanic mudflow"[17] is called a lahar.

Part of the Mount St. Helens lahar entered Spirit Lake (lower left corner of the image on the right) but most of the flow went west down the Toutle River, eventually reaching the Cowlitz River, 50 miles (80 kilometers) downstream.

Entrainments

Def. any "of several processes in which a solid or liquid is put into motion by a fluid"[18] is called entrainment.

Def. "of, relating to, or situated or occurring at the surface of a glacier"[19] is called supraglacial.

Def. occurring "or located within a glacier"[20] is called englacial.

Def. formed, "or occurring beneath a glacier or other body of ice"[21] is called subglacial.

Diamictons

Def. "nonsorted, noncalcareous terrigenous deposits composed of sand and/or larger particles dispersed through a muddy matrix"[22] are called diamictons.

Alluviums

Alluvium is loose gravel, sand, silt, or clay deposited by current or past streams. Credit: Sharon Reynolds, Arizona State University.

Def. "soil, clay, silt or gravel deposited by flowing water, as it slows, in a river bed, delta, estuary or flood plain"[23] is called alluvium.

Loesses

This is loess. Credit: Mussklprozz.

Def. any "sediment, dominated by silt"[24] is called loess.

Def. fine-grained, "silt-size sediment formed by the mechanical erosion of bedrock at the base and sides of a glacier by moving ice"[25] is called rock flour.

"When [rock flour] enters a stream, it turns the stream's color brown, gray, iridescent blue-green, or milky white. [It is also] called Glacier Flour or Glacier Milk."[25]

Soils

Profile is of Oklahoma State Soil - Port silt loam. Credit: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Def.

  1. a "mixture of sand and organic material, used to support plant growth",[26]
  2. an "unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants",[26] and
  3. an "unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the earth that has been subjected to and shows effects of genetic and environmental factors of: climate (including water and temperature effects), and macro- and microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent material over a period of time"[26]

is called a soil.

"The Port series [shown in the profile on the right] consists of very deep, well-drained, moderately permeable, nearly level and very gently sloping soils on flood plains that are subject to frequent, occasional, or rare flooding. These soils are in western and central Oklahoma. They are in 33 of the 77 counties and make up about 1 million acres."[27]

"These soils formed in calcareous, loamy alluvium and under native grasses. A high volume of organic matter recycled in a grass ecosystem has resulted in good soil structure and tilth. Most areas of the soils are used as cropland. The main cultivated crops are alfalfa, wheat, grain sorghum, and cotton. Some areas are used as pasture or rangeland."[27]

Aeolianites

Holocene eolianite is on Long Island, Bahamas. Credit: Wilson44691.

Def. a "rock formed from dune sand, often calcareous"[28] is called an aeolianite.

Turbidites

Turbidites (interbedded with mudstones/siltstones) from the Ross Sandstone Formation. Credit: USGS.
Turbidite (Gorgoglione Flysch) is from Miocene, South Italy. Credit: Geologist.

Def. "sea-bottom deposits formed by massive slope failures where rivers have deposited large deltas"[29] are called turbidites.

"Turbidites [shown in the image on the right] are sea-bottom deposits formed by massive slope failures where rivers have deposited large deltas. These slopes fail in response to earthquake shaking or excessive sedimentation load. The temporal correlation of turbidite occurrence for some deltas of the Pacific Northwest suggests that these deposits have been formed by earthquakes."[29]

"Turbidites (interbedded with mudstones/siltstones) from the Ross Sandstone Formation Turbidite system of Namurian age in County Clare, Western Ireland. The sandstone beds were formed in a deep basin by turbidites coming from a delta area."[29]

Marginal marines

This is a marginal marine sequence from southwestern Utah, USA. Credit: Wilson44691.

The marginal marine sequence on the right has been dated to the Middle Triassic.

Limestones

Layers of alpine limestone are dated to the Triassic. Credit: Gikü.

The middle Triassic layers of alpine limestone in the image on the right were deposited on the bottom of a shallow sea.

Layered sediments

Example is ruin marble from Horná Breznica (polished surfaces). Credit: František Marko, Daniel Pivko and Vratislav Hurai.

Def. secondary "rings or bands resulting from rhythmic precipitation in a gel, or within a fluid-saturated rock"[30] are called Liesegang rings.

"The ruin marble structure of the Cretaceous/Paleogene fine-grained marly limestone from the Outer Flysch Belt of the Western Carpathians has a non-tectonic origin, according to structural and sedimentological evidence. Distinctive offsets of coloured red-brownish ferric oxyhydroxide bands are not due to displacements along rock-cutting fractures, as they superficially appear to be. Evidences for shear movement along these pseudo-faults were not observed. Band offsets result from different velocities of pervasively diffusing fluids, precipitating ferric oxyhydroxides in corridors bounded by sets of mineralised systematic joints. During rock weathering, calcite-filled joints operated as barriers for lateral fluid diffusion, but enabled longitudinal diffusion along healed joints."[31]

Diameters

Def. a "particle classification system ... based on diameter"[32] is called the Wentworth scale.

Boulders

This image shows a rock apparently where it fell. Credit: Sten Porse.

Def. "[a] particle [or large piece of stone] greater than 256 mm in diameter [that can theoretically be moved if enough force is applied]"[33] is called a boulder.

Cobbles

Def. "[a] particle from 64 to 256 mm in diameter"[34] is called a cobble.

Pebbles

These are pebbles on a beach. Credit: Slomox.

Def.' "[a] particle from 4 to 64 mm in diameter"[35] is called a pebble.

Granules

Def. "[a] particle from 2 to 4 mm in diameter"[36] is called a granule.

Gravels

Gravel, largest fragment in this photo is about 4 cm, is from Thirasia, Santorini, Greece. Credit: .

Def. "[a] particle from 2 to 64 mm in diameter"[37] is called a gravel.

Sands

Close-up of sand from a beach in Vancouver, shows a surface area of approximately between 1-2 square centimetres. Credit: .

Def. "[a] particle from 62.5 microns to 2 mm in diameter"[38] is called a sand.

Muds

Def. "[a] particle less than 62.5 microns in diameter"[39] is called a mud.

Silts

Def. a "particle from 3.9 to 62.5 microns in diameter"[40] is called silt.

Clays

Quaternary clay in Estonia is 400,000 years old. Credit: Siim Sepp.

Def. a "particle less than 3.9 microns in diameter"[41] is called clay.

Colloids

Def. "[a] particle less than 1 micron in diameter"[42] is called a colloid.

Technology

This sediment core sample was extracted for the ANtarctic geological DRILLing program known as ANDRILL. Credit: Peter West, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation.

A sediment core sample extracted for the ANtarctic geological DRILLing program known as ANDRILL is shown on the right. Sediment and rock core were extracted from the ocean floor under the Ross Ice Shelf during the 2006-2007 austral summer.

Research

Hypothesis:

  1. Sedimentology like other sciences begins with common elements such as sediments.

Control groups

This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the control group.

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the treatment group(s).[43] In comparative experiments, members of the complementary group, the control group, receive either no treatment or a standard treatment.[44]"[45]

Proof of concept

Def. a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"[46] is called a proof of concept.

Def. evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called proof of concept.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of

  1. background,
  2. procedures,
  3. findings, and
  4. interpretation.[47]

See also

References

  1. ↑ SemperBlotto (18 August 2006). "sedimentology, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2014-11-09.
  2. ↑ "sediment, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 29 October 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  3. ↑ "intraclast, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 21 June 2013. Retrieved 2015-02-15.
  4. ↑ "lithification, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 17 August 2013. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
  5. ↑ "lithofacies, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 27 May 2014. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
  6. ↑ "lithogenesis, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 26 May 2014. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
  7. ↑ "lithophile, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 2 April 2014. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
  8. 1 2 3 "bedrock, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 July 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  9. ↑ "regolith, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 25 May 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  10. ↑ "Saprolite, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 12 April 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  11. ↑ "laterite, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 24 May 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  12. ↑ "drift, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 18 October 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-03.
  13. ↑ "till, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 17 November 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-04.
  14. ↑ "outwash, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 17 April 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  15. ↑ "erratic, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 13 August 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  16. ↑ USGS (July 18, 2012). "Earthquake Glossary - landslide". Menlo Park, California USA: USGS. Retrieved 2014-12-02.
  17. ↑ "lahar, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 December 2014. Retrieved 2015-02-17.
  18. ↑ "entrainment, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 November 2013. Retrieved 2014-11-22.
  19. ↑ "supraglacial, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 26 May 2014. Retrieved 2014-11-22.
  20. ↑ "englacial, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 20 April 2011. Retrieved 2014-11-22.
  21. ↑ "subglacial, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2014-11-22.
  22. ↑ L. J. G. Schermerhorn (September 1966). "Terminology of Mixed Coarse-Fine Sediments: NOTES". Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 36 (3): 831-5. http://archives.datapages.com/data/sepm/journals/v33-37/data/036/036003/0831.htm. Retrieved 2014-11-08.
  23. ↑ SemperBlotto (12 August 2005). "alluvium, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2014-11-10.
  24. ↑ SemperBlotto (31 March 2006). "loess, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2014-11-10.
  25. 1 2 Eleyne Phillips (16 December 2004). "Glossary of Glacier Terminology". Reston, Virginia USA: United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2014-11-09.
  26. 1 2 3 "soil, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 25 November 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  27. 1 2 Natural Resources Conservation Service (05 December 2014). "Port -- Oklahoma State Soil". Washington, DC USA: U. S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  28. ↑ "aeolianite, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 28 May 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-06.
  29. 1 2 3 USGSTurbidites (July 24, 2012). "Earthquake Glossary - turbidites". Menlo Park, California USA: USGS. Retrieved 2014-12-02.
  30. ↑ "Liesegang rings, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 2015-02-21.
  31. ↑ František Marko, Daniel Pivko and Vratislav Hurai (2003). "Ruin marble: a record of fracture-controlled fluid flow and precipitation". Geological Quarterly 47 (3): 241-52. https://gq.pgi.gov.pl/article/download/7313/5963. Retrieved 2015-02-21.
  32. ↑ "Wentworth scale, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. September 13, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  33. ↑ "boulder, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. September 21, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  34. ↑ "cobble, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. September 1, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  35. ↑ "pebble, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 16, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  36. ↑ "granule, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 16, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  37. ↑ "gravel, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 16, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  38. ↑ "sand, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 23, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  39. ↑ "mud, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. October 23, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  40. ↑ Metaknowledge (31 March 2006). "silt, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2014-11-10.
  41. ↑ Metaknowledge (17 March 2012). "clay, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2014-11-10.
  42. ↑ "colloid, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. September 8, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  43. ↑ Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne (2008). Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-72756-9. http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover.
  44. ↑ R. A. Bailey (2008). Design of comparative experiments. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68357-9. http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579.
  45. ↑ "Treatment and control groups, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. May 18, 2012. Retrieved 2012-05-31.
  46. ↑ "proof of concept, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. November 10, 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  47. ↑ Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis (August 13, 2005). "Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study". Lancet 366 (9485): 549-55. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/. Retrieved 2012-05-09.

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