Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Autism and emotional development

Go to a 3 min. audiovisual overview of this chapter.

Overview

There has been a lot of research that emphasises and highlights the significance of a child’s physical growth and development but not as much research focusing on a child’s emotional growth and development. So how does a child grow to understand who they are and what their sentiments are? How do they develop the ability to communicate and form friendships with others? (Reinsburg. K., 2009; Brooks. A, n.d.) These questions need to be addressed as they are the basis for the development of a child’s socio-emotional well-being from age zero to age six: their self-confidence, sense of self value and esteem, their compassion and their ability to develop meaningful relationships. Unfortunately as Brooks (n.d.) highlights, more often that not, people notice the absence of a child’s social and emotional proficiencies rather than their accomplishments and this has imposed limitations on this area of study. This chapter specifically focuses on the struggles of children with an autism spectrum disorder particularly in relation to their ability to recognise and show emotions, to interact with others through verbal and nonverbal communication and their elasticity in thought and action through their response and perception in their social interactions (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Begeer, 2005).

Figure 1. Autism Awareness Ribbon

What is Autism?

Autism and Autism Spectrum Disorders are apart of a series of multifaceted disorders that can affect a child’s brain development. Under the DSM-V manual it has been acknowledged as a separate pervasive disorder from that of intellectual disability, and all autistic disorders have been combined under one diagnosis of ASD. At one time autism was thought to be a rare disorder but autism is a disorder that has been around for centuries and for decades an extensively studied topic.  However, as awareness has grown so has its prevalence. Research has shown that Autism is more prevalent in females who have an IQ under 35 and males who have a higher (Durand & barlow, 2013).  It is not known why this is the case. In earlier times before autism was recognized  as a disorder, austism was attributed to  bad parenting, a diagnosis which obviously had a devastating effect on parents wellbeing (Bettelheim, 1976). A lot parents were left feeling guilty and responsible for their child’s condition, being describes as cold and perfectionists (Kanner, 1949).

Autism, has an array of symptoms, all of which affect a child’s ability to interact on a social level, and their verbal and nonverbal communication. Statistically one third of autistic children never acquire speech (Tager-Flusberg, 2009). Even with a small amount speech it is abnormal and often very repetitive (Durand & barlow, 2013).

Furthermore, autism can affect intellectual capabilities, coordination and attention levels and physical health, with restricted patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (Durand, 2011). Children with autism struggle to express themselves emotionally and to understand situations involving themselves and others.  These aspects of the disorder have a negative impact on the child’s development because children need those abilities  and underdevelopment in emotional expression has a negative affect on the child’s social interactions and communication (Kasari & Sigman, 1996).  Indeed, the severe impairment in social interaction makes it significantly difficult for children with autism to interact socially with other individuals.  These children are “cut off” from the world around them (Taylor, 2005).

Figure 2. Autistic child's repetitive routine of stacking cans

There is however at one end of the Autism spectrum a milder form of autism known as Asperger’s Disorder. In contrast to more severe forms of autism, Asperger’s is characterised only by a significant impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted repetitive stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Compared to other forms of autism, there are no significant delays in language or emotional acquisition in Asperger's Disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Children with Asperger’s are normally quite verbal, and hold unusual and limited, but factual, interests (Volkmar et al, 2009).

This video highlights example of children with varying degrees of Autism Spectrum Disorder and the efforts made to aid in their emotional development at school. What is autism?

Emotional Development

What is Emotional Development?

A person’s emotional development is based on social experience and sense of self- dating back to their childhood (Reinsburg. K., 2009; Brooks. A, n.d.). Emotional development teaches children specific reactions to emotional situations helping them to understand and control their emotions.  During this period of a person’s life, from age zero to six years of age, the nurturing of development is key to aiding the growth of relationships specifically with direct family members through repeated interactions and also to the development of the child’s brain structures.

Typical Emotional Development - Theoretical Approaches

Emotional development or early child hood mental health has a knock on effect to the development and stability of other functions in a child’s body specifically cognitive, motor and even language development (Reinsburg. K., 2009). These are connected through how a child comprehends what they are feeling and how they express these feelings outwardly along with their ideas. These developments require a balance - a balance between internal control and understanding of emotions and external interaction and communication.

According to PBSparents (n.d.) from age one a child has the ability to:

• Be familiar with the figure are around them. And has the ability to show the contentedness of this. Attachments are formed with the parents surrounding their play. For example getting a biscuit and eating a little before showing Dad
• Be observant of emotional reactions of others and demonstrates self- consciousness when getting in to trouble.
• Experiences the simple emotions of fear, anger, sadness and happiness. A parent comforts shows a child the makings of controlling their emotions.

From age two:

• Exploration is key to emotional development as apart of trial and error. Pretend play also is based on their everyday situations and unfamiliar things
• Language has also become key to their development –“who, what, why”; helps them to start to complete sentences to aid their interaction
• Social interaction with other children is occurring but children still like their independence.
• Feelings are being labeled now that they start to recognise off facial expressions. And comfort from a caretaker or familiarity in a teddy bear is still require after conflict.

From age three:

• Familiarity is desired frequently at this age for security.
• During conflict or emotional distress, the child will seek help or comfort, or provide help to others.

From age four:

• Emotionally, children learn the causes of feelings and the reactions that come about.
• They learn to manage intense emotions through talking or drawing.
• They like to interact in groups and learn to show sympathy and suggest resolutions to conflict

From age five:

• Children show much greater independence by resolving their own conflicts and demonstrating compromise in group play
• They have ability to interact and maintain friendships with adults and children
• Understand acceptance on a social level.

It is said that the healthy social and emotional development of a child, such as the defined time frame above, means the child will develop relations, persistence and the ability to focus their attention and regulate their behaviour to discover and learn. Children of typical emotional development, like above, tend to express ideas and emotions and display compassions and empathy towards others. The ability to control emotions in highly emotional and intense situations is also indicative of stable emotional development.

Theoretical approaches to defining a stable emotional development attempts to explain and outline what kind of environment is best suited for the child’s emotional development. There are two key approaches that when studied together demonstrate how a typical emotional development in an environment with strong attachments would occur in a child. These are the Psychoanalytic Approach from Erikson and the Attachment theories from Bowlby. Together they show how a “typical” child would grow and develop emotionally according to defined standards. However it must be noted that the perception of any atypical type of development is based on what society has historically has defined as a typical set of emotions reciprocated by an inbuilt reaction that promotes their wellbeing (Schaffer, 2005).

Erikson’s Model (Brooks, n.d.; Mcleod, 2013)

Attachment Theories

Attachment in this chapter concerns the behaviour of a child towards the main caregivers and how this attachment influences and impacts their development emotionally (Bowlby, 1969). It does not have to be shared Mcleod (2013).  Bowlby’s original work in attachment demonstrates the significance of the child’s relationship with their mother especially at an early age in providing love, safety and security. His work with emotionally disturbed children highlighted the significance of this attachment under highly stressful conditions. He divided the attachment into 4 stages.

Atypical Development: Emotions and Children with Autism

A major aspect of autism is the restricted behaviours and emotions that make it nearly impossible for an autistic individual to hold a conversation with another person because they are either unable to or unwilling to interact. Social interaction is the shared experience and practice between peers in which people effectively initiate and respond to social stimuli (Shores, 1987; Bauminger, 2002). It is well recognized that the social participation of children with autism in peer interaction can be quiet low and poor in quality (Sigman & Ruskin, 1999). Research has shown that these difficulties in socio-emotional understanding has caught children, especially those with high functioning autism, in a “vicious circle of isolation” (Bauminger, 2002) and these children struggle in social cognitions, interactions and in expressing their own emotions (Bauminger, 2002; American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Volkmar, Carter, Grossman, & Klin, 1997). Most autistic children have preference to ritualistic behaviour or maintenance of sameness, like waving hands in front of their eyes or spinning in circles, this behaviour clearly suggests interaction with others is unpredictable for them (Durand, 2011).

As many researchers, including Stanton (2009) have pointed out, these autism caused distinctive emotional deficits, means that an autistic child is also socially impaired. Stanton (2009) highlights:

Social Cognition

Researchers define social cognition as the child’s capacity to decipher verbal and nonverbal social and emotional prompts – their emotional recognition, their ability to collate information in their peripheral and central eye line and their ability to initiate interaction (Bauminger, 2002; Gepner et al, 2001). 

Distinguishing expression in emotional recognition in oneself and in others aids in deciphering contextual information.  In children, it is the basic emotions of happiness, sadness, anger and fear, that are most prevalent and the simplest to decipher. Furthermore the acquired skill of comprehending more complex emotions of – embarrassment, empathy, loneliness, or surprise that takes more brain processing power. It has been found that even high functioning autistic children are much less competent than the norm when it comes to distinguishing such emotions, even the simplest of them (Hobson 1986; Dapretto et al, 2006; Gepner et al, 2001). Distinguishing emotions for autistic children means the ability to recognise simple emotion without the capability to explain the causes of the emotion. An absent quality in autistic children is the ability to decipher information in their central eye line. Autistic children tend to pay particular attention to the peripheral and physical characteristics of a situation not the social meaning (Dapretto et al, 2006).  For example when shown a picture of two people arguing, a child who does not have autism could comprehend that the figures were upset and angry, and therefore arguing. They could also determine what kind of relationship the two figures have. An autistic child does not have the ability to do this. They would see the figures in proximity to each other, articles around the figures and colors. This is demonstrated in many studies such as Klin (2000) wherein it is shown that a child with autism was not able to understand cartoon figures.

Many researchers of autism disorders place emphasise on the complex idea of the theory of mind. This theory concerns the ability to decipher a person’s mental state including for example their beliefs, desires, intentions, emotions and a person’s ability to predict behaviour and its consequences (Dapretto et al, 2006). The theory is based on studies of children five years old and younger, and it must be noted that there is limited substantial research involving children above that age group. Furthermore children with typical or normal emotional development, have at this age the ability to comprehend social situations according to emotion. Autistic children however find it difficult to differentiate between what they think is happening in a social situation and what is actually happening. This difficulty can be associated with  their focus of attention being on the social situation’s  peripheral information . The theory of mind explains deficits in the form of emotional impairments found in autistic children (Lantz, 2002). Typically it is around the age of five months that the child starts to understand facial expressions.  This nonverbal behaviour reflects their own behaviours and responses depending on the predicted consequences (Lantz, 2002). Lantz (2002) highlights the 1994 study by Dawson and Osterling of children attending a birthday party prior to being diagnosed as autistic. These children lacked attention and emotions such as surprise or happiness. Moreover children come to discover that the behaviour is goal directed (Lantz, 2002). They learn to intentionally act in certain way to bring desired consequences (Lantz, 2002; Baron-Cohen, 1993). Something as simple as wanting to held by their mother – would be directed by crying and arms stretched out. The theory of mind highlights that a struggle in this for autistic children is to focus attention, specifically, focusing on more than one thing at the one time.

Interaction and Expressing Emotions

Charles Darwin said, “[that] the movements of expression of the face…are in themselves much more of importance
for our welfare” (Cole et al, 1994). 

Human faces have the ability to communicate information about ones character and emotions through the simplest of movements. It is the first and most powerful basis of information gathering for facilitating emotional and verbal communication, and for social interactions (Gepner et al, 2001). Facial expressions are key to understanding emotions and in turn social interaction as they highlight an individual’s intentions and promote appropriate responses (Bal et al, 2010). The formation of relationships and acceptable social interactions are based on emotional understanding and recognition. This also correlates to a child’s ability adapt to social situations rather than internalising emotions and behaviour (Bal et al, 2010). Furthermore research has shown that autistic children have scanning and visual tracking difficulties when trying to comprehend facial expressions that sway the focus of their attention. This explains an aspect of child’s social detachment if they have autism because is has been shown that specific regions of a face express specific emotions (Bal et al, 2010). Bal et al (2010) and Dimberg and Petterson (2000) also note that negative emotions are more often expressed in the upper region of the face and positive emotions in the lower region -around the mouth. Thus an individual must be looking for facial clues and cues to recognize emotions and to decipher this information.  Children with autism are unable to do this.

Figure 3. Expressions

The ability to express thoughts and emotions or the ability to participate socio-emotionally is another struggle for those children with autism. Autistic children do not proactively engage in social interaction with others, like smiling and laughing (Kim et al, 2009). Bal et al (2010) and others highlight this along with showing that children with ASD are less capable of coordinating social cues, perceiving others’ moods, and anticipating others’ responses. It has also be noted and cannot be ignored that vast numbers of children with high functioning autism are aware of their inability to do this and express the desire to have such abilities (Losh et al, 2006). Losh et al (2006) highlights this is contrary to the original thoughts of many researchers and professionals (e.g. American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Kanner 1943) in regard to an autistic child’s emotional indifference and absence of facial expressions. But autistic children do have ability to express simple emotions (Losh et al, Bauminger, 2002; Depretto et al, 2006). It is only the complex emotions where children with high functioning autism have been shown to require prompts to express such complex emotions (Dapretto et al). Furthermore it takes them longer to display such emotions than the typical developing child. Dapretto et al (2006) also highlighted the strategy required for autistic children to express the view – “I think”.

Encouraging Emotional Development

Research has demonstrated that there are straightforward steps to encourage children’s emotional development. Furthermore these steps can help change the stigma surrounding autism and to allow it to be more accepted in society. These steps can be easily modified and applied to autistic children to assist their emotional development. Other research states that focusing the attention of an autistic child is key and to get a response from an autistic child exaggeration may be required (Raisingchildren.net, n.d.). Encouraging eye contact is another way to promote social interaction in autistic children. To further encourage interaction with strangers a child’s need to attend to that person will have to be pointed out for them (Raisingchildren.net, n.d.). Of course reward and positive encouragement towards their simple social achievements is advisable. This will encourage social contact and interest. Raisingchildren.net (n.d.) highlights that autistic children find interest in pictures, so displaying facial expressions, routines, even family photos in small colourful flip book, for example, can encourage familiarity of family members and friends and also emotions.

Conclusion

External Links

Emotional Development

Parenting and Emotional Development in Children

Emotional Development in Children

References