Chemicals/Thoriums

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Thorium sample (99.9 % = 3N) is a thin sheet under argon in a glass ampoule, ca. 0.1 g. Credit: Alchemist-hp.

Thorium is chemical element number 90 in the periodic table.

Radiation

This is a modification of the original image to fix the half-life of Pb-212. Credit: BatesIsBack.

The decay chain on the right depicts that chain for thorium.

Theoretical thorium

Def. "a chemical element (symbol Th) with atomic number 90"[1] is called thorium.

Metals

This diagram shows a face-centered cubic lattice. Credit: Daniel Mayer and DrBob.

Thorium is a silvery, radioactive, metallic element. At room temperature and pressure, thorium crystallizes into a face-centered cubic lattice, where one thorium atom occupies each location of a black sphere in the diagram on the left.

Isotopes

nuclide
symbol		 historic
name		 Z(p) N(n)  
isotopic mass (u)
 		 half-life[n 1] decay
mode(s)[2][n 2]		 daughter
isotope(s)[n 3]		 nuclear
spin		 representative
isotopic
composition
(mole fraction)		 range of natural
variation
(mole fraction)
excitation energy
209Th 90 119 209.01772(11) 7(5) ms
[3.8(+69-15)]		 5/2-#
210Th 90 120 210.015075(27) 17(11) ms
[9(+17-4) ms]		 α 206Ra 0+
β+ (rare) 210Ac
211Th 90 121 211.01493(8) 48(20) ms
[0.04(+3-1) s]		 α 207Ra 5/2-#
β+ (rare) 211Ac
212Th 90 122 212.01298(2) 36(15) ms
[30(+20-10) ms]		 α (99.7%) 208Ra 0+
β+ (.3%) 212Ac
213Th 90 123 213.01301(8) 140(25) ms α 209Ra 5/2-#
β+ (rare) 213Ac
214Th 90 124 214.011500(18) 100(25) ms α 210Ra 0+
215Th 90 125 215.011730(29) 1.2(2) s α 211Ra (1/2-)
216Th 90 126 216.011062(14) 26.8(3) ms α (99.99%) 212Ra 0+
β+ (.006%) 216Ac
216m1Th 2042(13) keV 137(4) µs (8+)
216m2Th 2637(20) keV 615(55) ns (11-)
217Th 90 127 217.013114(22) 240(5) µs α 213Ra (9/2+)
218Th 90 128 218.013284(14) 109(13) ns α 214Ra 0+
219Th 90 129 219.01554(5) 1.05(3) µs α 215Ra 9/2+#
β+ (10−7%) 219Ac
220Th 90 130 220.015748(24) 9.7(6) µs α 216Ra 0+
EC (2×10−7%) 220Ac
221Th 90 131 221.018184(10) 1.73(3) ms α 217Ra (7/2+)
222Th 90 132 222.018468(13) 2.237(13) ms α 218Ra 0+
EC (1.3×10−8%) 222Ac
223Th 90 133 223.020811(10) 0.60(2) s α 219Ra (5/2)+
224Th 90 134 224.021467(12) 1.05(2) s α 220Ra 0+
β+β+ (rare) 224Ra
225Th 90 135 225.023951(5) 8.72(4) min α (90%) 221Ra (3/2)+
EC (10%) 225Ac
226Th 90 136 226.024903(5) 30.57(10) min α 222Ra 0+
227Th Radioactinium 90 137 227.0277041(27) 18.68(9) d α 223Ra 1/2+ Trace[n 4]
228Th Radiothorium 90 138 228.0287411(24) 1.9116(16) a α 224Ra 0+ Trace[n 5]
CD (1.3×10−11%) 208Pb
20O
229Th 90 139 229.031762(3) 7.34(16)×103 a α 225Ra 5/2+
229mTh 0.0076(5) keV 70(50) h IT 229Th 3/2+
230Th[n 6] Ionium 90 140 230.0331338(19) 7.538(30)×104 a α 226Ra 0+ Trace[n 7]
CD (5.6×10−11%) 206Hg
24Ne
SF (5×10−11%) (Various)
231Th Uranium Y 90 141 231.0363043(19) 25.52(1) h β− 231Pa 5/2+ Trace[n 4]
α (10−8%) 227Ra
232Th[n 8] Thorium 90 142 232.0380553(21) 1.405(6)×1010 a α 228Ra 0+ 1.0000
β−β− (rare) 232U
SF (1.1×10−9%) (various)
CD (2.78×10−10%) 182Yb
26Ne
24Ne
233Th 90 143 233.0415818(21) 21.83(4) min β− 233Pa 1/2+
234Th Uranium X1 90 144 234.043601(4) 24.10(3) d β− 234mPa 0+ Trace[n 7]
235Th 90 145 235.04751(5) 7.2(1) min β− 235Pa (1/2+)#
236Th 90 146 236.04987(21)# 37.5(2) min β− 236Pa 0+
237Th 90 147 237.05389(39)# 4.8(5) min β− 237Pa 5/2+#
238Th 90 148 238.0565(3)# 9.4(20) min β− 238Pa 0+
  1. ↑ Bold for nuclides with half-lives longer than the age of the universe (nearly stable)
  2. ↑ Abbreviations:
    CD: Cluster decay
    EC: Electron capture
    IT: Isomeric transition
    SF: Spontaneous fission
  3. ↑ Bold for stable isotopes
  4. 1 2 Intermediate decay product of 235U
  5. ↑ Intermediate decay product of 232Th
  6. ↑ Used in Uranium-thorium dating
  7. 1 2 Intermediate decay product of 238U
  8. ↑ Primordial radionuclide

Research

Hypothesis:

  1. Thorium can be fissioned and fusioned.

Control groups

This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the control group.

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the treatment group(s).[3] In comparative experiments, members of the complementary group, the control group, receive either no treatment or a standard treatment.[4]"[5]

Proof of concept

Def. a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"[6] is called a proof of concept.

Def. evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called proof of concept.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of

  1. background,
  2. procedures,
  3. findings, and
  4. interpretation.[7]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Emperorbma (9 July 2015). "thorium, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2015-07-16.
  2. ↑ http://www.nucleonica.net/unc.aspx
  3. ↑ Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne (2008). Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-72756-9. http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover.
  4. ↑ R. A. Bailey (2008). Design of comparative experiments. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68357-9. http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579.
  5. ↑ "Treatment and control groups, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. May 18, 2012. Retrieved 2012-05-31.
  6. ↑ "proof of concept, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. November 10, 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  7. ↑ Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis (August 13, 2005). "Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study". Lancet 366 (9485): 549-55. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/. Retrieved 2012-05-09.

External links

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